Category: Ketamine News

New research explores how ketamine’s effects on single neurons contribute to significant alterations in the functioning of brain networks.

Ketamine, recognized as an Essential Medicine by the World Health Organization, is utilized for a variety of purposes including sedation, pain management, general anesthesia, and treating treatment-resistant depression. Although its effects on brain-wide activity and its target within brain cells are known, the connection between these aspects has been unclear. A recent study conducted by researchers across four institutions in the Boston area employs computational modeling to explore previously overlooked physiological details. This research provides fresh insights into the mechanisms of how ketamine operates.

“This modeling work has helped decipher likely mechanisms through which ketamine produces altered arousal states as well as its therapeutic benefits for treating depression,” co-senior author Emery N. Brown, Edward Hood Taplin Professor of Computational Neuroscience and Medical Engineering at The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT

” data-gt-translate-attributes=”[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]”>MIT, as well as an anesthesiologist at MGH and a Professor at Harvard Medical School.

The researchers from MIT, Boston University, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Harvard University said the predictions of their model, published May 20 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, could help physicians make better use of the drug.

“When physicians understand what’s mechanistically happening when they administer a drug, they can possibly leverage that mechanism and manipulate it,” said study lead author Elie Adam, a Research Scientist at MIT who will soon join the Harvard Medical School faculty and launch a lab at MGH. “They gain a sense of how to enhance the good effects of the drug and how to mitigate the bad ones.”

Blocking the door

The core advance of the study involved biophysically modeling what happens when ketamine blocks the “NMDA” receptors in the brain’s cortex—the outer layer where key functions such as sensory processing and cognition take place. Blocking the NMDA receptors modulates the release of excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.

When the neuronal channels (or doorways) regulated by the NMDA receptors open, they typically close slowly (like a doorway with a hydraulic closer that keeps it from slamming), allowing ions to go in and out of neurons, thereby regulating their electrical properties, Adam said. But, the channels of the receptor can be blocked by a molecule. Blocking by magnesium helps to naturally regulate ion flow. Ketamine, however, is an especially effective blocker.

“Physiological details that are usually ignored can sometimes be central to understanding cognitive phenomena,” said co-corresponding author Nancy Kopell, a professor of math at BU. “The dynamics of NMDA receptors have more impact on network dynamics than has previously been appreciated.”

With their model, the scientists simulated how different doses of ketamine affecting NMDA receptors would alter the activity of a model brain network. The simulated network included key neuron types found in the cortex: one excitatory type and two inhibitory types. It distinguishes between “tonic” interneurons that tamp down network activity and “phasic” interneurons that react more to excitatory neurons.

The team’s simulations successfully recapitulated the real brain waves that have been measured via EEG electrodes on the scalp of a human volunteer who received various ketamine doses and the neural spiking that has been measured in similarly treated animals that had implanted electrode arrays. At low doses, ketamine increased brain wave power in the fast gamma frequency range (30-40 Hz). At the higher doses that cause unconsciousness, those gamma waves became periodically interrupted by “down” states where only very slow frequency delta waves occur. This repeated disruption of the higher-frequency waves is what can disrupt communication across the cortex enough to disrupt consciousness.

But how? Key findings

Importantly, through simulations, they explained several key mechanisms in the network that would produce exactly these dynamics.

The first prediction is that ketamine can disinhibit network activity by shutting down certain inhibitory interneurons. The modeling shows that the natural blocking and unblocking kinetics of NMDA-receptors can let in a small current when neurons are not spiking. Many neurons in the network that are at the right level of excitation would rely on this current to spontaneously spike. But when ketamine impairs the kinetics of the NMDA receptors, it quenches that current, leaving these neurons suppressed. In the model, while ketamine equally impairs all neurons, it is the tonic inhibitory neurons that get shut down because they happen to be at that level of excitation. This releases other neurons, excitatory or inhibitory from their inhibition allowing them to spike vigorously and leading to ketamine’s excited brain state. The network’s increased excitation can then enable quick unblocking (and reblocking) of the neurons’ NMDA receptors, causing bursts of spiking.

Another prediction is that these bursts become synchronized into the gamma frequency waves seen with ketamine. How? The team found that the phasic inhibitory interneurons become stimulated by lots of input of the neurotransmitter glutamate from the excitatory neurons and vigorously spike, or fire. When they do, they send an inhibitory signal of the neurotransmitter GABA to the excitatory neurons that squelch the excitatory firing, almost like a kindergarten teacher calming down a whole classroom of excited children. That stop signal, which reaches all the excitatory neurons simultaneously, only lasts so long, ends up synchronizing their activity, producing a coordinated gamma brain wave.

“The finding that an individual synaptic receptor (NMDA) can produce gamma oscillations and that these gamma oscillations can influence network-level gamma was unexpected,” said co-corresponding author Michelle McCarthy, a research assistant professor of math at BU. “This was found only by using a detailed physiological model of the NMDA receptor. This level of physiological detail revealed a gamma time scale not usually associated with an NMDA receptor.”

So what about the periodic down states that emerge at higher, unconsciousness-inducing ketamine doses? In the simulation, the gamma-frequency activity of the excitatory neurons can’t be sustained for too long by the impaired NMDA-receptor kinetics. The excitatory neurons essentially become exhausted under GABA inhibition from the phasic interneurons. That produces the down state. But then, after they have stopped sending glutamate to the phasic interneurons, those cells stop producing their inhibitory GABA signals. That enables the excitatory neurons to recover, starting a cycle anew.

Antidepressant connection?

The model makes another prediction that might help explain how ketamine exerts its antidepressant effects. It suggests that the increased gamma activity of ketamine could entrain gamma activity among neurons expressing a peptide called VIP. This peptide has been found to have health-promoting effects, such as reducing inflammation, that last much longer than ketamine’s effects on NMDA receptors. The research team proposes that the entrainment of these neurons under ketamine could increase the release of the beneficial peptide, as observed when these cells are stimulated in experiments. This also hints at therapeutic features of ketamine that may go beyond anti-depressant effects. The research team acknowledges, however, that this connection is speculative and awaits specific experimental validation.

“The understanding that the sub-cellular details of the NMDA receptor can lead to increased gamma oscillations was the basis for a new theory about how ketamine may work for treating depression,” Kopell said.

Reference: “Ketamine can produce oscillatory dynamics by engaging mechanisms dependent on the kinetics of NMDA receptors” by Elie Adam, Marek Kowalski, Oluwaseun Akeju, Earl K. Miller, Emery N. Brown, Michelle M. McCarthy and Nancy Kopell, 20 May 2024, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2402732121

Additional co-authors of the study are Marek Kowalski, Oluwaseun Akeju, and Earl K. Miller.

The JPB Foundation, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, The Simons Center for The Social Brain, the National Institutes of Health

” data-gt-translate-attributes=”[{"attribute":"data-cmtooltip", "format":"html"}]”>National Institutes of Health, George J. Elbaum (MIT ’59, SM ’63, PhD ’67), Mimi Jensen, Diane B. Greene (MIT, SM ’78), Mendel Rosenblum, Bill Swanson, and annual donors to the Anesthesia Initiative Fund supported the research.

The Connecticut Public Health Committee unanimously approved a bill (House Bill 5396) that, if passed into law, would pave the way for the use of psilocybin and MDMA in the treatment of mental health issues. Psilocybin is a psychedelic compound found in “magic mushrooms,” while MDMA, also known as “molly” or ecstasy, is a synthetic, psychoactive drug that alters mood and perception.

Studies show that both substances have great potential in managing severe mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and PTSD when used in conjunction with traditional therapy in what has come to be known as psychedelic-assisted therapy.

The legislation would require the state to set up three specialized treatment sites and fund a pilot program for psychedelic-assisted therapy that would provide “qualified” patients with access to psilocybin- or MDMA-assisted therapy through the FDA’s expanded access program.

Individuals who fall under the “qualified” patients group are retired first responders, veterans, healthcare workers, and individuals from historically underserved communities with serious or life-threatening behavioral/mental health disorders and no access to effective treatments.

The committee arrived at a decision after carefully considering oral and written testimonies presented during a public hearing. The majority of the testimonies came from people with personal experience with mental health issues, who provided compelling arguments about how psychedelics have helped them address and manage their conditions more effectively than traditional medicines.

The bill represents a bold move to increase access to reliable mental health treatments in the state amid a glaring national mental health crisis that the COVID-19 pandemic has only exacerbated. The unanimous, bipartisan decision by the committee reflects a growing consensus on the urgency to combat the mental health crisis by embracing new and innovative treatment methods.

“Most of us are aware that we had both access and quality issues with mental health before the pandemic hit us,” said Rep. Jonathan Steinberg, who also serves as the committee’s co-chair. “It took the pandemic to highlight the real gaps and shortcomings in supply and access to mental health care. It obliged us to be more open-minded and a little creative. It also led us to look with fresh eyes at alternative therapies.”

The bill is not aimed at legalizing psychedelic substances but rather to help set up a guiding framework for the state to provide access to these potentially lifesaving treatments as private and federal entities continue to invest and facilitate research and clinical trials.

Psychedelic-assisted therapy may not be a silver bullet for the ongoing mental health crisis, but they offer hope where there is currently little to be found. If enacted, this will be an important step in the right direction for mental health treatment as it will provide an alternative approach to a problem that has remained under-addressed and often overlooked for far too long. And although the FDA’s expanded access program is still inherently restrictive, the new law would pave the way for increased access.

DecrimPovertyDC, a coalition of progressive activist groups, has sparked nationwide attention with its ambitious effort to push for drug policy reform in the nation’s capital. The coalition has brought together a range of organizations that all share a common goal- to see an end to the mass incarceration of people caught up in the “War on Drugs.”

When it comes to drug policies, the United States is woefully behind the times. While other countries have been moving towards a more public health-centered approach, the United States continues to invest billions of dollars in a failed “war” that has led to the mass incarceration of thousands of people, particularly low-income and marginalized communities.

The Drug Policy Alliance (DPA), Students for Sensible Drug Policy, Honoring Individual Power and Strength (HIPS), and D.C. Justice Lab are just some of the organizations that have come together to form DecrimPovertyDC. The group has already made a splash, launching a legislative proposal and organizing a series of rallies and lobbying events to push for a number of reforms, including the decriminalization of all drugs, expanded harm reduction and public health intervention services, and investment in evidence-based education programs focused on harm reduction.

“We have 50 years of experience to show us what an enforcement-first approach to drugs gets us – record overdose deaths, skyrocketing mass incarceration, and severe racial inequality. To continue down this path is not only irresponsible but cruel and inhumane,” Queen Adesuyi, who serves as Policy Manager for the Office of National Affairs at the DPA, is quoted as saying.

The legislative proposal, named the District of Columbia Drug Policy Reform Act (D.C DPRA), calls for a comprehensive and humane drug policy that prioritizes public health and safety. If enacted, the proposal recommends that people found in possession of controlled substances – that are below a certain benchmark amount (yet to be determined), would no longer face criminal penalties, but would, instead, receive a citation and be referred to a harm reduction center.

“The goal of DecrimPovertyDC is to decriminalize poverty by working to end stigma, violence, criminalization, and other forms of oppression against people who are targeted by the state for ‘crimes of poverty,’ including drug use, sex work, housing insecurity, citizenship station, and incarceration history,” HIPS spokesperson Righteous-Rogers, is quoted as saying.

This approach has proven to be more effective than criminalization in reducing drug use and its associated harms. Baltimore recently ceased prosecuting drug possession, among other minor, non-violent crimes like prostitution, and is yet to record an uptick in crime rates or increased threats to public safety, according to Johns Hopkins University researchers.

This is in line with decades of research that shows decriminalization does not lead to more crime. Portugal, for instance, underwent decriminalization in 2000 and has since recorded a dramatic decline in drug-related crime and fatal overdoses.

DecrimPovertyDC believes that it is time for our nation’s capital to catch up with the rest of the world and pioneer a more sensible and humane approach to drug policy.

According to the DecrimPovertyDC campaign, the impact of laws criminalizing possession and use of drugs “extends far beyond the criminal legal system, as people face an array of punishments in employment, housing, education, immigration, child welfare, and public benefits – all of which can trap people in poverty.”

All these factors make recovery and re-entry into the community unnecessarily difficult for those with drug convictions, which in turn contributes to repeat offenses, creating a vicious cycle of poverty and criminal convictions.

The campaign has been met with open arms by some members of the Law Enforcement Action Partnership (LEAP), a non-profit organization made up of former and current corrections officials, judges, prosecutors, and police officers committed to improving the criminal justice system.

Evan Douglas, a retired D.C. patrol officer and member of the LEAP, has expressed his unwavering support for the D.C. DPRA. He cited that, after witnessing firsthand all the ills brought about by tough-on-crime policies and a criminal justice system that prioritizes punishment, “the only way forward” is through decriminalization, drug education, implementation of public health interventions and harm control, and record sealing.

Members of the public in D.C. (District of Columbia) have also expressed great support for drug policy reform, according to a survey conducted by FM3 Research. The poll shows that 83% of the participants favor the decriminalization of drugs, with 65% strongly backing far-reaching drug policy reform.

It is evident that a criminalized approach to the so-called war on drugs creates a system that is rigged against those who are already marginalized. It is time for lawmakers in D.C. to enact a more sensible and humane drug policy that does not condemn offenders to lifelong consequences, as proposed by the DecrimPovertyDC campaign.

“Magic mushrooms” have been used for centuries for healing, religious, and spiritual purposes. But after being “unfairly” stigmatized in the US during the 1960s counterculture politics and later outlawed, magic mushrooms seem to be making a comeback.

There is growing evidence that “magic mushrooms” could be instrumental in treating mental and behavioral health issues. Recent studies show that psilocybin, the psychedelic substance found in the so-called magic mushrooms, could revolutionize the world of mental health treatments.

Apparently, classic psychedelics like psilocybin and LSD can help “rewire” the brain in ways that could play a role in long-term recovery from severe psychological and behavioral health issues like anxiety, depression, addiction, and post-traumatic stress disorder when used under supervision.

“…rather than just masking a symptom, it allows you to go and look at the cause of the problem and figure out the best way to address that moving forward,” said Eric Gaden, a veteran and nurse – who testified in front of Washington lawmakers in favor of psilocybin legalization.

Currently, psilocybin is a Schedule I drug, meaning it is illegal in the United States. But this might soon be a thing of the past. There is a growing wave of support for decriminalizing magic mushrooms, and lawmakers are starting to take notice.

In 2020, Oregon voters passed a ballot initiative to legalize the supervised use of psilocybin for therapeutic purposes. This move has since become a pacesetter, with multiple legislative proposals seeking to legalize psychedelics or facilitate psychedelic research popping up in Connecticut, California, Utah, New Jersey, Texas, Missouri, and New Jersey.

Surprisingly, what has been viewed as a taboo and fringe issue for decades is quickly gaining mainstream traction and most of the legislative proposals are receiving unanimous, bipartisan support at the preliminary stages.

In mid-march, Connecticut’s Public Health Committee unanimously approved a bill looking to legalize and provide funding for a pilot program that will give “qualifying” patients access to psilocybin- and MDMA- assisted therapy. A similar bill seeking to grant universities and research institutions in Oklahoma the right to conduct psilocybin research also received similar support from the state’s Public Health Committee.

Recent polls, including one conducted in D.C. by FM3 Research, have divulged that an overwhelming majority of voters would be much more likely to vote for leaders who embrace drug policy reforms. By the looks of things, the same playbook that was used to legalize and destigmatize cannabis is in play again, this time in favor of the “magic mushrooms” and other psychedelic substances. Lawmakers and members of the public are slowly but surely coming around to the idea that these psychedelic substances have immense medicinal value.

And with more studies and clinical trials showing evidence of their efficacy, everything seems to be moving on a positive path, and it’s only a matter of time before more and more states follow in the footsteps of Oregon. The FDA has also described psilocybin as a breakthrough treatment, a designation that carries plenty of promise.

However, not everyone is on board with the idea of legalizing psychedelics. Some have chosen to tread carefully, while others have rebuffed the idea. For instance, the State of Washington decided to shelve a bill that, if enacted, would have legalized supervised use of psilocybin by adults above 21 years of age. Instead, the state lawmakers allocated a substantial budget to psilocybin research and how to effectively implement a legal psilocybin treatment program.

On the other hand, the U.S. House of Representatives has, on two occasions, rebuffed an amendment tabled by New York lawmaker Rep. Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez (D) that sought to get rid of “old” laws that restrict psychedelics research.

So it would seem that we are still in the early stages of what might prove to be a protracted battle to legalize and destigmatize the use of psychedelic substances for medicinal purposes.

But with more support and positive evidence, it seems inevitable that at some point in the near future, psilocybin and other psychedelics may be legally available for the treatment of severe and life-threatening behavioral and mental health disorders in most states, at the very least.

Dr. Bronner’s Magic Soaps, a major player in the soap industry, has recently announced that they will be providing free ketamine-assisted therapy to their employees as part of their healthcare benefits.

Ketamine-assisted therapy is a relatively new development in the field of mental health treatment. It has proven to be highly effective in managing a wide range of hard-to-treat mental illnesses, including severe depression, end-of-life anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

The treatment involves using controlled ketamine infusions in a medical setting in combination with traditional counseling and therapy techniques to help individuals struggling with mental illness manage their symptoms and improve their overall quality of life.

The “magic soap” company- which has its headquarters in Vista, California – is an ardent proponent of drug decriminalization and a vocal supporter of the use of psychedelic medicines for their therapeutic benefits.

Over the years, the family-owned business has used the labels on their soap and personal care products as a unique advocacy tool for preaching world peace and enlightening the masses about the benefits of psychedelic-assisted therapy.

Starting in 2015, they have channeled over $23 million to drug research, advocacy, and decriminalization/legalization efforts, as The New York Times reported. The company has also made headlines on several occasions in the past few years after being heavily involved in orchestrating and funding the successful push to legalize hemp cultivation in the United States and the legalization of the “magic” mushrooms for medicinal use in Oregon.

The decision to offer ketamine-assisted therapy as part of their employee healthcare benefits went into effect early this year and is seen as a natural extension of the company’s commitment to psychedelic research and drug policy reforms.

“Considering all our advocacy on this issue, this employee benefit is the next logical step,” Michael Bronner, the President of Dr. Bronner’s Magic Soaps, tweeted. “I don’t want to oversell ketamine therapy as a miracle cure, but it just stripped the rust away, gave me a reset, and got me to a really good space,” he added, referring to his experience with the treatment.

This move also comes at a time when psychedelic research is experiencing a resurgence, with more and more evidence mounting in support of the potential psychological and behavioral health benefits of different kinds of psychedelics.

The rise in research into psychedelics has also been spurred on by the discovery that classic psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin could revolutionize the way we view and treat mental and behavioral health disorders.

David Bronner, the company’s CEO (Cosmic Engagement Officer), is also very passionate about drug decriminalization and the use of psychedelics for their medicinal effects. “Let’s face it, the world would be a far better place if more people experienced psychedelic medicines,” he is quoted as saying.

Dr. Bronner’s Magic Soaps is only the first major company to offer ketamine-assisted therapy as part of their employee healthcare benefits. Still, it’s likely we will see more and more companies follow suit in the coming years as psychedelic research and legalization efforts continue to gain mainstream traction.

Just months after Governor Daniel McKee of Rhode Island signed into law a bill proposing the establishment of what will be the country’s first overdose prevention sites, lawmakers in the Ocean State have launched two drug decriminalization bills in what may be seen as an accelerated effort to adopt more progressive drug policies.

This comes at a time when the “War on Drugs” has failed terribly, for a large part, and more and more states are leaning towards drug decriminalization and public health-centered interventions as a way to address problems associated with drug use and addiction.

One of the bills, sponsored by representative Brandon Potter (D), looks to build on the existing marijuana decriminalization policy by including both buprenorphine and psilocybin on the list of restricted substances whose possession doesn’t amount to a criminal penalty in the state.

Psilocybin is a psychedelic compound found in psychedelic “magic” mushrooms, which has shown incredible potential in helping manage severe mental disorders like depression, anxiety, and PTSD and could be instrumental in mitigating the widespread mental health crisis in the country. Buprenorphine, on the other hand, is a type of opioid medication that has shown great success in treating opioid addiction.

But unlike marijuana which doctors can only “recommend” to avoid any licensing repercussions, the proposed bill would give qualified medical professionals the green light to, “in good faith,” prescribe psilocybin for therapeutic use. The proposal also gives the director of health the mandate to promulgate the rules and regulations needed to effect this provision if passed into law.

The second bill was sponsored by representative Jose Batista (D) and looks to implement a far-reaching drug policy reform that would prevent criminal prosecution or jail time for possession of up to 1 oz. (one ounce) or less of any substance listed in The Controlled Substances Act (CSA), with the exception of fentanyl.

According to the bill, a violator would be subject to a $100 civil penalty for first-time offenders and $300 fines for any subsequent offenses. This is a significant departure from the current policy where individuals caught in possession of drugs can face criminal prosecution and jail time, in addition to other punitive measures such as fines, and community service.

Both bills, if passed into law, would put Rhode Island at the forefront of drug decriminalization efforts and send a clear message that the state is willing to abandon failed punitive drug policies in favor of progressive laws and evidence-based intervention measures which can help save lives and improve public health.

Rhode Island is also nearing marijuana legalization for recreational use by adults in the state. This push to legalize marijuana is spearheaded by Governor Dan McKee (D) and would bring Rhode Island to par with over 20 other US states which have already adopted similar measures.

It is indeed a new dawn for drug policy reform in Rhode Island, and it will be interesting to see how these bills progress through the state legislature.

Recent studies conducted by UC San Francisco and Imperial College London show that psilocybin causes increased brain connectivity and repair in the mind of depressed patients. The studies show that this repair of brain areas damaged by depression helps patients break free of symptoms associated with depression.

Researchers examined the fMRI scan of 60 patients who participated in two separate psilocybin trials. All participants were diagnosed with treatment-resistant depression (TRD) in the first trial. Researchers informed all patients that they would receive psilocybin.

The second trial was conducted with patients whose depressive condition was not as severe. Of these participants, roughly half were given psilocybin, while the others received a placebo, SSRI medication escitalopram. Both studies received psychotherapy using similar methods.

fMRI scans were conducted pre- and post-treatment. The scans clearly show that participants who received psilocybin had smoother, i.e., less rigid, brain landscapes. This smoothness shows increased connectivity in regions damaged by depression. The repaired areas of the brain are better able to carry novel thoughts, allowing patients to think in new ways, often breaking free of their depressive symptoms.

Researchers also reported that participants were less emotionally avoidant and showed increased cognitive functions. The improvement in their symptoms, brain function changes, and emotional states all correlated with the psilocybin treatment. The control group in the second study, who received only the SSRI medication, did not show as significant an improvement.

“In previous studies, we had seen a similar effect in the brain when people were scanned whilst on a psychedelic, but here we’re seeing it weeks after treatment for depression, which suggests a carry-over of the acute drug action,” said Robin Carhart-Harris, Ph.D., Director, Neuroscape Psychedelics Division at UCSF, published April 11, 2022, in Nature Medicine.

Psilocybin affects the Default Mode Network (DMN) in the brain, suppressing its function. It is thought that this, along with psilocybin’s ability to impact 5-HT2a, temporarily disrupts parts of the brain responsible for repetitive thinking and the retention of trauma. This disruption may allow patients to temporarily snap out of depressive symptoms, making them more open to exploring novel ways of dealing with their condition and more easily influenced by traditional psychiatric treatments.

“Baseline BDI scores indicated severe depression (mean BDI = 34.81, s.d. = 7.38). In line with our previous report25, rapid, substantial, and sustained reductions in depression severity were observed after treatment (Fig. 3a,b). Relative to baseline, significant BDI reductions were observed at one week.”
Daws, R.E., Timmermann, C., Giribaldi, B. et al. Increased global integration in the brain after psilocybin therapy for depression. Nat Med (2022).

(Image Source, Nature Medicine, 2022)

While the study does show promising results, it is important to note that research into psilocybin as a treatment for depression is still developing. Further research is critically needed to progress psilocybin as medication and overcome stigmas associated with the powerful psychedelic medicine.

David Connell is a U.S. Air Force Veteran writer and author of Cooking with Magic: The Psilocybin Cookbook. David holds a B.A. in Communications and Creative Writing from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Connect with him about drug policy reform, his thoughts on research in novel psychedelic therapies, creative writing, and his unabashed love for Science Fiction on Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram.

Source:
Daws, R.E., Timmermann, C., Giribaldi, B. et al. Increased global integration in the brain after psilocybin therapy for depression. Nat Med (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01744-z

Research conducted by Andrew Adamatzky and published by The Royal Society Publishing indicates that fungi may have hidden languages. According to Adamatzky’s report, mycelial networks, the roots of fungal colonies, create and transport spikes of electrochemical signals similar to those created in the human nervous system during speech.

Adamatzky and his team were able to group the electrical spikes into trains (words), providing them with a basis to build a linguistic model for the fungi. In other words, certain species of fungus are talking to each other. The team then constructed an algorithm and a Liz-Zempel complexity hierarchy to model the fungal sentences.

The algorithm that Adamatzky and his team created showed that fungal word complexity closely resembles that of human speech in both length and pattern. With one species, S. Commune communicates with the highest level of complexity. The team also found complex electrical interactions between mycelium and plant root networks.

One of the most interesting findings, aside from the possibility that the mycelial networks that we all walk across every day are communicating, was how fungal spikes and spike trains resemble human neuron activity. Their findings show that the fungi’s electrochemical spikes vary based on mechanical chemical, optical and electrical stimulation.

Some fungal languages may be more complex than European languages.

During the study, Adamatzky and his team made yet another shocking discovery. They compared the complexity of the fungal spikes (words) to those of certain European languages, primarily English and Russian. They found that some of the fungal counterparts may be more complex. To find this, they converted the speculative mushroom ruminations into binary sequences.

The team then adopted analogies from the English language and made some assumptions about the distance between spikes. They were able to make an interesting finding. In English, an average vowel has a duration of 300 milliseconds (ms), with a minimum and 70 ms and a max of 400 ms. Using this as a baseline, they calculated the spike intervals of the four species (C. Militaris, F. velutipes, S. commune, O. nidi formis). They found that all four species had similar word intervals.

Furthermore, and even more strange, fungi have a relatively complex vocabulary. The researchers found S. Commune, the most linguistically complex of the four species studied, has a lexicon of 50 words. This complexity, combined with an average word length of 5.97 on the Liz-Zempel complexity hierarchy, made them incredibly similar to human speech. For example, the English language had an average score of 4.8, and Russian came in at 6.

What does this mean for human/fungi relations?

For the time being, not much, but it may not hurt to treat your local lawn and garden mushrooms with a little bit of decorum. In all seriousness, while the study is interesting and thought-provoking, it doesn’t mean much on its own. Adamatzky and his team freely admit that the studies of fungal languages via em. spike reading is in its absolute earliest stages, noting that “we don’t even understand the language of cats and dogs.”

The more we learn about the complexities of fungal, plant, and animal languages, the more we will have to think about our relationship with the rest of earth’s plant and animal life. As we discover more about fungal languages, we will inevitably develop a greater understanding of ourselves and our place on Earth. Also, if you happen to be a fan of the Stoned Ape Theory, this new information certainly has some interesting implications.
While mushrooms having language is exciting, there were some limitations.
Adamatzky and his team’s findings are incredible and should make humanity stop for a moment and reconsider what we think of as intelligence and consciousness. However, there are some limitations to the study and its findings.

The team admits that their findings are, for now, just speculative, and the models they used were limited. For instance, using binary is considered a primitive way of classifying and calculating language complexity. Furthermore, the team believes the study needs to be expanded to include more species. Lastly, the team would like to expand the study to look for grammatical complexity, lexicon, and word length.

David Connell is a U.S. Air Force Veteran writer and author of Cooking with Magic: The Psilocybin Cookbook. David holds a B.A. in Communications and Creative Writing from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Connect with him about drug policy reform, his thoughts on research in novel psychedelic therapies, creative writing, and his unabashed love for Science Fiction on Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram.

Sources

Andrew, A., Andrew Adamatzky Andrew Adamatzky http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1073-2662 Unconventional Computing Laboratory, Adamatzky, A., & Andrew Adamatzky http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1073-2662 Unconventional Computing Laboratory. (2022, April 6). Language of fungi derived from their electrical spiking activity. Royal Society Open Science. Retrieved April 7, 2022, from https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.211926

Electrical currents associated with … – Wiley Online Library. (n.d.). Retrieved April 7, 2022, from https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1469-8137.1995.tb04314.x

Fantastic Fungi. (2021, March 25). The Stoned Ape. Fantastic Fungi. Retrieved April 7, 2022, https://fantasticfungi.com/the-mush-room/the-stoned-ape-theory/#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20%E2%80%9CStoned%20Ape,have%20profoundly%20changed%20their%20brains.

We all vent from time to time. We get stressed out, feel anxious, or maybe succumb to a hint of depression in our daily lives, and the influx of emotion becomes a whirling dervish of pain. To relieve that pain – and perhaps anger or frustration – we often turn to that time-honored practice of venting.

Why Do We Vent?

On the surface, venting – expressing pent-up emotions to someone else – should be a positive experience. The simple act of having an attentive or sympathetic ear by your side should be a kind of relief, empowering and satisfying.

What’s venting? You probably think you know the answer because people often perceive venting as a quick-release mechanism and an engine of good. But one of the official definitions offers a different take. Cambridge Dictionary says to vent is “to express a negative emotion in a forceful and often unfair way.”

But why do we vent, and does it always have to be negative?

According to Leon F. Seltzer, Ph.D., “Venting your frustrations alleviates tension and stress. You almost always feel better—and “lighter”—after sharing some perceived threat, indignity, misfortune, or injustice.”
Sharing our emotions is a part of what makes us human. The venting process is an essential addition to a psychological toolkit that helps us deal with the rigors of daily life. By sharing our emotions, we’re simultaneously reducing stress while making ourselves feel closer to the person we communicate with and creating a sense of belonging. There’s a fair amount of risk in showing our inner selves because we assume people will respond sympathetically. But if they do, there’s a rush of positivity because we’ve been seen, understood, and supported.

Bernard Rime said in 2009 that the act of disclosing stress is a means of coping but that venting is a 2-way street between you (the person venting) and someone on the receiving end (the person hearing the vent).

“Positive venting can reduce stress, but negative venting can lead to heightened stress and physical health concerns. It is not just about the person venting, but equally important, the person hearing the vent. Research has shown that the difference between positive and negative venting can be focused on how the person hearing the vent responds, both through speech and action (Bodie et al., 2015; Goldsmith, 2004). This research supports numerous counseling theories and models that focus on active listening, empathy, and safety.”

Venting to express our emotions serves another purpose, too. According to the experts at the University of Kansas Health System, “Just by doing that, we loosen the emotion’s grip over our well-being. Expressing our emotions brings about a lot more benefits, too. When we fail to express our emotions, our brain can often go into the fight-or-flight state. This is a physical reaction to stress that sets off a chain of events throughout our bodies.”

According to The Greater Good of the University of California, Berkley, and author Ethan Kross, sharing feelings may provide you with insight into what’s triggering complicated feelings and avoiding future upsets. The act of verbalizing what’s troubling you to someone else helps to elucidate the situation and give a name to the emotions you’re feeling. Or, if we get caught in an emotional whirling dervish of pain, the people we talk to in confidence may be able to offer new perspectives and practical advice.

So…Venting is Healthy, Right?

On the surface, the person venting earnestly appears healthy and productive, but that’s not always the case.

One of the things we need to recognize – which is hard to do when emotions are running hot – is that “emotional dumping” is often confused for venting, and it’s unhealthy.

If you’re “dumping” on someone, you or the other person could very well recognize why it’s problematic – perhaps long after the fact. Dumping your emotions tends to be toxic. It can be repetitious, directs blame at someone else without seeing your culpability, paints you as the victim, and can be overwhelming.

But genuinely healthy venting is communicative without being combative or aggressive. It has characteristics such as:

• Feels healthy
• Has limited scope, focusing on one thing at a time
• Recognizes time limits of the other person
• It doesn’t go around in circles
• There’s no blaming or self-victimization
• Assumes some level of accountability for your role in a perceived conflict
• Is receptive to finding solutions once the venting is complete

By venting in a healthy manner – which may take some preparation or even a few deep breaths – you’re doing justice not only to your own emotions but the emotions of someone willing to listen.

What Not to Say When Someone is Venting

One of the most recognized characteristics about venting is we normally wring out our emotions with people we trust: a partner, family member, friend, or co-worker. If the other person is known to be sympathetic or a captive audience (like a kind bartender or customer service representative), the process is all the easier.

But what if the shoe’s on the other foot? You’ve vented and confided in someone else for years, and now it’s their turn. How do you respond? Responding to someone venting can be a challenge, but there are some things you probably shouldn’t say at any point during the encounter. Remember, you had their attention. Now it’s their turn.

Don’t even think about saying anything close to the following.

“Let me play the devil’s advocate.”

This has deep-seated roots in Catholicism, and the Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers a two-part definition:

• a Roman Catholic official whose duty is to examine critically the evidence on which a demand for beatification or canonization rests
• a person who champions the less accepted cause for the sake of argument

Setting aside the religiosity for a moment, your train of thought should be copacetic with the second part of the definition – and mindful of why it’s a bad idea when someone needs to vent. People who vent feel wronged somehow, and by taking the other person’s side, you may be betraying their trust.

“Venting serves a specific purpose—and it’s usually to let the venter unload stress. You may add to your boyfriend or girlfriend’s stress when, by playing devil’s advocate, you express empathy for your loved one’s stressor instead of for your loved one. Or when, as devil’s advocate, you come to the stressor’s defense instead of to your boyfriend’s. Or when, also as devil’s advocate, you give away to her stressor what your girlfriend actually needs: your compassion.”

“Well, here’s something positive –”

No, the person venting doesn’t want your interpretation of any positives that can be taken away, mainly because you’re devaluing their emotions. Most people try and be optimistic and think spreading that concept is helpful, that finding a shred of a silver lining in a pot of lead can be beneficial and lower that person’s stress. But that’s beside the point. The other person isn’t looking for a silver lining or a golden pot at the end of the rainbow – their vent is a feverish request that you’ll let that person express their feelings.

“Listen, here’s what you need to do….”

The moment you start a monologue and turn the conversation back to yourself, do you know who you’ve become? You’re now Charlie Brown’s teacher, a weirdly monotone sounding person who rambles on and loses the other person after the first “wah wah wah …” What you need to do to help is simply be present, be there, be silently engaged yet supportive. You may think it’s virtuous to offer advice, but after hearing the other person’s issue for a short time – minutes or even seconds – you may simply come across as being audacious. You can’t solve their problem that quickly, and there’s a good chance the other person isn’t looking for a solution, anyway.

“How come …”

People are naturally curious, so it’s normal to want to ask, “How come you did that?” or “Why did you do that?” “Why? Why? Why?” can cause a lot of problems and invite defensive answers. The question itself isn’t bad, but it can do more harm than good when a loved one or someone else trusts you to let them vent. Instead of asking why the other person is bothered by this stressor or that stressor, let them express their emotions and be receptive to their needs.

Finally, saying nothing at all may be the worst thing to say when someone is venting. Silence isn’t always golden. In this case, it may be harmful. It can send the wrong message. By not communicating, even a simple “I understand,” you’re saying the other person isn’t important and you don’t have any sympathy or empathy to spare. It’s important to know that the wrong response can create an uncomfortable moment for you and the other person.

Final Thoughts

Lending an attentive, sympathetic ear can go a long way, and that’s often all the other person is looking for. Managing your own emotions while balancing the needs of others is never easy, but it is worth the challenge.

Chris Herbert holds a B.A. in Modern Languages and currently enjoys the Spanish lifestyle and lots of paella in Valencia, Spain. Connect with him about physical and mental wellbeing, business and entrepreneurship, and anything tennis-related on Linkedin.

Sources:

Suttie, Jill. (2021, June 21). Does Venting Your Feelings Actually Help? Greater Good Magazine. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/does_venting_your_feelings_actually_help

Seltzer, Leon F., PhD. (2014, April 2). 6 Virtues, and 6 Vices, of Venting. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/evolution-the-self/201404/6-virtues-and-6-vices-venting

Quick Guide. Why is Emotional Expression Important? Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.kansashealthsystem.com/health-resources/turning-point/programs/resilience-toolbox/emotional-expression/why-is-emotional-expression-important The University of Kansas Health System

Kurz, Charity, PhD. (2017, March 16). Thought Hub. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF VENTING. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.sagu.edu/thoughthub/the-psychology-of-venting

Rime, Bernard. (2009, January). Research Gate. Emotion Elicits the Social Sharing of Emotion: Theory and Empirical Review. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241647192_Emotion_Elicits_the_Social_Sharing_of_Emotion_Theory_and_Empirical_Review

Definition of Venting. Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/venting

Orloff, Judith, M.D. (2017, September 8). Psychology Today. The Difference Between Venting and Dumping. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-empaths-survival-guide/201709/the-difference-between-venting-and-dumping

FoundCare, Inc. Emotional Dumping vs. Healthy Venting. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.foundcare.org/blog/385-emotional-dumping-vs-healthy-venting

Spenceley, Arleen. CatholicMatch. Here Are 5 Things NOT to Say When Your Significant Other Is Venting. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://plus.catholicmatch.com/articles/5-things-not-to-say

Definition of Devil’s Advocate. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/devil%27s%20advocate

Kramer, Bryan. (2018, August 13). Forbes. The Critical Difference Between Sympathy And Empathy. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2018/08/13/the-critical-difference-between-sympathy-and-empathy/?sh=37a1e9d916a3

Tom, Pamela. (2016, Spring). BerkeleyHaas. The Advantage of Sympathy. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://newsroom.haas.berkeley.edu/magazine/spring-2016/the-advantage-of-sympathy/

Chang, Shawn. (2020, March 3). The University of British Columbia-Student Services. Emotional Intelligence 101: Empathetic Responses. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://students.ubc.ca/ubclife/emotional-intelligence-101-empathetic-responses

Waters, Brad. (2011, August 10). Psychology Today. Anger Management: The Five W’s of Healthy Venting. Retrieved March 8, 2022, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/design-your-path/201108/anger-management-the-five-ws-healthy-venting

3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), also known as “molly,” has been found to be highly effective for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) when used with conventional therapy and psychotherapy methods. The phase 3 clinical trial results were presented Tuesday at the American Chemical Society meeting in San Diego, California.

A review of data from the phase 3 results showed that MDMA was highly effective at treating PTSD when combined with psychotherapy. This efficacy carried over to participants who had the much more severe treatment-resistant form of PTSD (TR-PTSD) and those with substance abuse disorders.

The trials were conducted with 90 participants, all diagnosed with PTSD and some with TR-PTSD. The participants who received MDMA saw a reduction in their Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS-5) of at least 20 points and a significant reduction of reported symptoms. In contrast, the control group, which received a placebo, saw a 14 point improvement.

While a six-point difference may not seem like a significant reduction vs. placebo, this is more than enough to move a patient out of the above PTSD categories. Representing a very positive change in their quality of life.

CAPS-5 scales from 0 to 80 points and is the Veteran Administration’s go-to standard for measuring the severity of PTSD symptoms. The scale uses a 30 line item questionnaire to assess the severity of a patient’s condition. Furthermore, CAPS-5 also measures the frequency and intensity of symptoms. Making it an invaluable tool for assessing a patient’s mental health.

Based on CAPS-5 scoring, a 20 point reduction represents a significant improvement for an individual’s mental health. While it is typically associated with military veterans, affecting 11-20 out of every 100 individuals, it can impact anyone who has survived a traumatic experience.

What methods did the clinical trial use?

Clinicians and researchers conducting the trial had a pool of 90 individuals with a CAP-5 score of 35 or higher. These scores place every participant in the chronic, severe, or extreme categories of PTSD symptoms. Participants received three 90-minute preparatory psychotherapy sessions, followed by the administration of three 8-hour active MDMA or placebo sessions. Nine 90-minute integrative psychotherapy coaching sessions then followed this.

This contrasts with the previous phase 2 trials, which only administered MDMA throughout two sessions. Researchers attribute the phase 3 trials improved efficacy to this 3rd MDMA session.

What do these results mean?

PTSD affects 11.8 million Americans, with many of them suffering from debilitating symptoms that disrupt their lives. Veterans, in particular, are twice as likely to develop PTSD. PTSD can compound other underlying conditions, including suicidal ideation, which veterans are also significantly more likely to be experienced.

This study and a review of six phase 2 clinical trials conducted by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) showed an overall reduction of 54.2% for patients to meet the criteria for having severe PTSD during follow-up sessions.

That over 50% reduction in symptom severity greatly improves patients’ lives. If given FDA approval and implemented on a wide scale, researchers estimate it could save $103.2 million in treatment costs for 1000 patients over a 30-year scale (for patients that meet treatment criteria).

While saving costs and improving patient outcomes is always a positive. This study and others currently being run by MAPS represent something more. They show that MDMA and other psychedelics are safe and highly effective potential treatments for some of the worst treatment-resistant conditions. The number of lives that novel treatments like MDMA could save is unknown. Still, it is safe to say that these results represent real, positive change for how America treats entrenched mental health conditions.

David Connell is a U.S. Air Force Veteran writer and author of Cooking with Magic: The Psilocybin Cookbook. David holds a B.A. in Communications and Creative Writing from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville. Connect with him about drug policy reform, his thoughts on research in novel psychedelic therapies, creative writing, and his unabashed love for Science Fiction on Twitter, LinkedIn, and Instagram.

Sources:
Marseille, E., Mitchell, J. M., & Kahn, J. G. (n.d.). Updated cost-effectiveness of MDMA-assisted therapy for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: Findings from a phase 3 trial. PLOS ONE. Retrieved March 24, 2022, from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0263252
Va.gov: Veterans Affairs. Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5 (CAPS-5). (2018, September 24). Retrieved March 24, 2022, from https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/assessment/adult-int/caps.asp